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Focus on ART

Primate models for assisted reproductive technologies

Departments of Obstetrics/Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, and Environmental and Occupational Health, Pittsburgh Development Center, 204 Craft Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA

Correspondence should be addressed to L Hewitson; Email: Lhewitson{at}pdc.magee.edu

	Abstract

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
Although the deliberate creation of human embryos for scientific research is complicated by ethical and practical issues, a detailed understanding of the cellular and molecular events occurring during human fertilization is essential, particularly for understanding infertility. It is clear from cytoskeletal imaging studies of mouse fertilization that this information cannot be extrapolated to humans because of unique differences in centrosomal inheritance. However, the cytoskeletal rearrangements during non-human primate fertilization are very similar to humans, providing a compelling animal model in which to examine sperm–egg interactions. In order to address this key step in primate fertilization and to avoid the complexities in working with fertilized human zygotes, studies are now exploring the molecular foundations of various assisted fertilization techniques in a monkey model. While intracytoplasmic sperm injection with ejaculated or testicular sperm is quite successful in primate models, there are some specific differences when compared with standard IVF that warrant further investigation, particularly in regards to nuclear remodeling, genomic imprinting, Y-chromosome deletions and developmental outcomes. Similarly, primate models have been useful for examining spermatid function during fertilization but these have met with limited success. One area of primate reproductive research that has yet to be mastered is reproductive cloning. Genetically identical primates would provide the ultimate approach for accelerating stem cell-based therapies for a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, as well as targeted gene therapies for various metabolic disorders.

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI), first reported in 1992 (Palermo et al. 1992), has revolutionized methods for overcoming male factor infertility, offering many couples who were previously unable to conceive though in vitro fertilization (IVF) a chance of parenthood. The success of ICSI was largely driven by clinical and patient demands. There was no body of historical evidence, including animal studies, to determine the safety of potential clinical extrapolations. ICSI was hastily adopted into clinical practice and soon extended to include the use of sperm with abnormal morphology, such as in Kartagener’s syndrome (von Zumbusch et al. 1998), as well as epididymal and testicular sperm (Craft et al. 1993). Over the last decade, the number of ICSI cycles in the USA has increased dramatically and accounts for more than 50% of all IVF cycles. Some clinics use ICSI exclusively whenever assisted reproduction is warranted (Van Steirteghem et al. 1993).

Notwithstanding the success of ICSI, questions remain about the dangers of passing on traits responsible for male infertility (Kent-First et al. 1996), sex and autosomal chromosome aberrations (In’t Veld et al. 1995, Van Opstal et al. 1997, Bonduelle et al. 1999) and mental, physical and reproductive normalcy (Bonduelle et al. 1998a, Bowen et al. 1998). Perhaps the Y-chromosome deletions are among those best explored (Vogt et al. 1992, Reijo et al. 1996, Mulhall et al. 1997, Pryor et al. 1997, Kent-First et al. 1999) and are of particular concern, since a son conceived by ICSI may also suffer from male infertility (Kent-First et al. 1996, Kamischke et al. 1999). It has also been suggested that ICSI might interfere with the establishment of the maternal imprint in the oocyte or embryo increasing the risk of imprinting defects. Cox et al.(2002) report on two children who were conceived by ICSI who developed Angelman syndrome, a neurogenetic disorder, caused by loss of function of the maternal allele of the UBE3A gene. Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome (BWS), another imprinting disorder, has been associated with both IVF and ICSI procedures, suggesting that loss of maternal allelic methylation in BWS may be associated with in vitro embryo culture (Maher et al. 2003). Future studies are required to assess the possible association between assisted reproductive technologies (ART) and imprinting disorders. Several studies examining the health of ICSI offspring have now been completed and the data are reassuring (Bonduelle et al. 1998b, 1999, Devroey & Van Steirteghem 2004) although there is no experience yet with potential generational effects of ICSI in humans. Nudell et al.(2000) reported that, in some infertile men demonstrating meiotic arrest, there was a higher rate of mutations in the genes necessary for DNA repair in their testicular DNA samples than in testicular DNA isolated from fertile men with normal spermatogenesis. The same DNA repair problem was also found in malignant tumor cells of some cancer patients, suggesting that ICSI offspring produced from the sperm from these patients may also be infertile and, more importantly, at a higher risk for certain cancers (Nudell et al. 2000).

	Animal models for ART

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
‘Technical challenges’ were most likely responsible for the lack of a mouse ICSI model prior to its clinical application. Survival of mouse oocytes after ICSI is low (Ron-El et al. 1995) without the aid of a piezo-driven microinjection pipette (Kimura & Yanagimachi 1995) and although hamsters are a good model for understanding pronuclear formation after ICSI, their use is hampered because of the difficulty in culturing manipulated hamster oocytes to the desired stage for embryo transfer. Furthermore, fertilization in rodent species is dependent on maternal centrosomes (Schatten et al. 1985), whereas in humans the centrosome is paternally derived (Simerly et al. 1995). This is especially relevant with regard to heterologous ICSI to assay sperm function (Asada et al. 1995), since human sperm injected into hamster oocytes will not nucleate microtubules (Hewitson et al. 1997), as they do after injection into human oocytes (Simerly et al. 1995).

Rabbits have been successfully used to produce ICSI offspring (Iritani et al. 1988) but have not been routinely used as a model for studying human ICSI. Bovine ICSI has proved to be technically challenging (Hewitson et al. 1998) with low success rates and, prior to the first clinical reports in 1992, had resulted in the birth of a single calf (Goto et al. 1990). Furthermore, bovine oocytes are unable to complete meiotic maturation after ICSI without an additional chemical stimulus such as incubation in calcium ionophore (Keefer et al. 1990). Conversely, primate oocytes share several morphological similarities with human oocytes, including size, cytoskeletal architecture and cytoplasmic clarity. Oocyte manipulations for non-human primate ART procedures are almost identical to those used clinically (Hewitson et al. 1996, 1998) and offspring can be derived at similar success rates (Hewitson et al. 1999, 2000). While primate species are certainly expensive to maintain, their benefits as preclinical models for ART procedures are tremendous.

	Cytoskeletal architecture during primate IVF

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
Understanding the cellular and molecular events during human fertilization is essential for the field of developmental biology, as well as for clinical applications, including infertility treatments, contraception and the avoidance of developmental abnormalities. Using conventional and confocal epifluorescence microscopy of fixed oocytes and embryos, it has been well established that fertilization of rhesus oocytes requires a paternally derived centrosome (Sutovsky et al. 1996, Wu et al. 1996). The sperm centrosome is introduced into the oocyte during sperm incorporation where it is transformed into a zygotic centrosome, capable of nucleating microtubules (Simerly et al. 1995, Sathananthan et al. 1996). The microtubule-based ‘sperm aster’ is a radially arrayed three-dimensional structure that is found adjacent to and affixed to the sperm nucleus. The sperm aster has three essential roles: first, its growth subjacent to the egg cortex pushes the sperm nucleus towards the egg center, next, when the distal ends of the dynamic microtubules contact the egg nucleus, it undergoes a sudden and swift translocation to the center of the sperm aster where it meets the sperm nucleus and, finally, the continuing elongation of the sperm astral microtubules moves the now adjacent pronuclei towards the egg center. Following the migration and union of the male and female pronuclei, the centrosome also defines the site of first bipolar mitotic spindle assembly within the activated cytoplasm and participates in spindle organization by serving as a dominant microtubule organizing center at the spindle poles.

The cytoskeletal arrangements observed during meiotic maturation and fertilization of rhesus oocytes closely mirror events observed in humans (Simerly et al. 1995, Wu et al. 1996) but not in mice, which rely on maternal centrosomal sources. In addition, the role of the sperm centrosome during fertilization should not be minimized, as certain forms of fertilization failures appear to be due to defects in the organization or functioning of the sperm aster (Simerly et al. 1995, Rawe et al. 2000). There is great utility in performing studies on centrosome function in a primate model as it overcomes the complicated ethical, political, financial and practical issues regarding the deliberate creation of human zygotes and embryos for scientific research.

	Cytoskeletal architecture during primate ICSI

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
With the advent of clinical ICSI, primate oocytes were invaluable for better understanding cytoskeletal dynamics during ICSI fertilization. Using sperm from fertile rhesus macaques, centrosomal function, particularly sperm aster formation, appeared normal (Hewitson et al. 1996, 1998; Fig. 1). Sperm microinjected into rhesus oocytes nucleated microtubules and completed repositioning of the maternal and paternal pronuclei in a manner similar to that of rhesus oocytes fertilized by IVF (Wu et al. 1996). Since this study used in vitro matured oocytes obtained from older, unstimulated females, a number of fertilization failures were also noted (Hewitson et al. 1996). These included: (i) the inability to resume meiosis, shown by metaphase II arrest and premature chromosome condensation and (ii) centrosomal defects characterized by microtubule nucleation arrest, premature detachment of the sperm axoneme and aster from the paternal pronucleus and sperm aster microtubule growth defects. Similar cytoskeletal anomalies are seen in human fertilization failures in infertility clinics (Simerly et al. 1995) and further emphasize the importance of normal sperm centrosomal function regardless of fertilization method.

View larger version (103K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1 Microtubule and chromatin dynamics in rhesus ICSI zygotes. The only microtubules present in the unfertilized rhesus oocyte are those found in the metaphase-arrested, meiotic spindle (A). After the injection of a sperm, the oocyte activates and the sperm and egg pronucleus begin to form (B). As the sperm decondenses an aster of microtubules emanates from the base of the sperm head. These microtubules elongate to fill the entire cytoplasm during pronuclear formation and apposition (C). By prophase, most of the cytoplasmic microtubules disassemble leaving a small tuft of microtubules associated with the introduced centrosome (arrow, D). The centrosome duplicates and separates to form a bipolar array (E). The chromosomes align across the metaphase spindle (F) in preparation for first mitosis. Transmission electron microscopy reveals that asynchronous decondensation of sperm chromatin is an unusual feature of ICSI. The apical chromatin is unable to decondense synchronously with the basal region of chromatin, perhaps due to the physical restrictions imposed by the still intact acrosome (G). However, as the sperm continues decondensation, a normal male pronucleus will eventually form (H). F, female pronucleus; M, male pronucleus; C, chromatin; A, aster; AC, acrosome. Magnification: (A and B) and (D–F) bar = 20 µm; (C) bar = 25 µm; (G and H) bar = 3 µm. Reprinted with permission from Hewitson et al.(1996).

View larger version (42K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2 Unusual nuclear remodeling after rhesus ICSI. Membrane VAMP (A) is detected as a constricting ring around the paternal pronucleus separating the condensed and decondensing regions (inset, arrow). The perinuclear theca (B and arrow in inset) persists for up to 12 h post-ICSI, constricting the apical DNA (arrow). NuMA (C) is excluded from the condensed, apical region of the paternal pronucleus (main arrow), which is showing asynchronous chromatin decondensation (inset, arrow). M, male pronucleus; F, female pronucleus. Bar in (C) represents 20 µm (A) and 10 µm (B and C). Reprinted with permission from Hewitson et al.(1999).

Furthermore, DNA synthesis, as detected by bromodioxyuridine incorporation, and pronuclear migration can be delayed by several hours after ICSI in both pronuclei when the paternal pronucleus is still undergoing decondensation in the apical region, identifying a unique G₁/S cell cycle checkpoint (Hewitson et al. 1999). Conversely, after IVF, pronuclear migration has been completed within 12 h post-insemination and DNA synthesis is detected in both pronuclei. The significance of this asynchronous decondensation is not completely understood but it may lead to a diminished ability of the oocyte to express, or be exposed to, important paternal genes or gene products, thus leading to anomalies such as imprinting defects.

The positioning of the sperm after ICSI, in contrast to its normal entrance at the egg surface, may also expose the sperm to a different cytoplasmic environment. The use of time-lapse video microscopy to study pronuclear migration during fertilization has revealed that, after primate ICSI, the sperm which is typically deposited in the center of the oocyte migrates to a more cortical cytoplasmic position before attracting the female pronucleus, whereas sperm entering the oocyte following IVF remain in a cortical position during sperm aster assembly (C Simerly, personal communication). Dynamic imaging of rhodamine-labeled spindle microtubules of human oocytes revealed that the first polar body can be as much as 95° displaced from the spindle compared with 20° for control oocytes (Hewitson et al. 1999). Since the first polar body is not anchored firmly, mechanical manipulations such as those required for cumulus cell removal may result in its lateral displacement within the perivitelline space (Hardarson et al. 2000). With this in mind, the position of the polar body prior to ICSI should not be considered a reliable indicator of the position of the meiotic spindle. However, recent advances in polarization microscopy now permit the direct visualization of the meiotic spindle in living eggs prior to ICSI (Silva et al. 1999, Cohen et al. 2004). While alterations in pronuclear remodeling after ICSI do not prevent pronuclear formation, the onset of DNA synthesis and pronuclear migration may be delayed (Sutovsky et al. 1997, Hewitson et al. 1999) with, as yet, unknown consequences.

Primate oocytes have also been useful for examining centrosomal function of testicular sperm during fertilization (Hewitson et al. 2000). While sperm aster formation appeared normal, fertilization rates were slightly lower than for ICSI with ejaculated sperm (Hewitson et al. 1998, 2000). Similarly, elongated spermatids have been used for fertilization of rhesus oocytes, although failure in oocyte activation was commonly observed. This may be associated with the production of abnormal calcium oscillations after spermatid injection, although this problem generally improves with the maturation of the spermatids (Tesarik et al. 2000, Yazawa et al. 2000). When oocyte activation was successfully accomplished, sperm aster formation and pronuclear apposition in rhesus oocytes were observed, suggesting that elongated spermatids contain a functional centrosome. A single rhesus macaque has been derived from the injection of elongated spermatids (Hewitson et al. 2000).

Round spermatids, which are considered experimental by most, are used in ART for injection in cases of spermatogenic arrest by some clinics. Several normal clinical pregnancies following round spermatid injection have been reported (Antinori et al. 1997, Kahraman et al. 1998, Barak et al. 1998), although disappointingly poor fertilization and subsequent embryonic development are common outcomes (Levran et al. 2000, Vicdan et al. 2001). Fertilization of cynomolgus macaque oocytes with round spermatids has been reported; however, the only pregnancy established aborted at day 103 (Ogonuki et al. 2003). Round spermatids differ biologically from mature sperm in several important ways, such as immaturity of certain cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins (Ziyyat & Lefevre 2001), which probably contributes to the poor pregnancy rates (Ghazzawi et al. 1999). With regard to genomic imprinting, the exact timing of events in human spermatids is unclear. However, the expression of several paternally and maternally imprinted genes in mouse embryos fertilized with round spermatids has been reported (Shamanski et al. 1999) although these authors also suggested that some minor elements of genomic imprinting might be incomplete even after spermiation. Because the safety and effectiveness of round spermatid injections for human ART are still far from certain, non-human primate models are valuable experimental systems for assessing the application of this technique.

	Nuclear transfer in non-human primates: challenges and possibilities

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
Experimental cloning research in non-human primates is well justified for many reasons, e.g. to accelerate HIV/AIDS vaccine trials, to explore the potential of human embryonic stem (ES) cells in a species more closely related than mice and to investigate the molecular basis of human disease. Cloning by somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) has now been confirmed in domestic species, mice, rabbits and cats, and was successful once with embryonic nuclei in non-human primates (Meng et al. 1997), but not yet somatic nuclei (Simerly et al. 2003). SCNT in rhesus macaques results in unanticipated defects in centrosomes (Simerly et al. 2003) and mitochondria (St. John & Schatten 2004). While rhesus cloned embryos are able to enter first mitosis, chromosomes misalign on disarrayed spindles and, despite seemingly normal appearance of eight-cell embryos, no pregnancies resulted after transfer (Simerly et al. 2003). Imaging of cloned ‘embryos’ revealed that non-human primate SCNT fails due to imbalances between the chromosome sets, spindle pole numbers, microtubule-based molecular motors and the acquired somatic cell centrosome (Simerly et al. 2003).

	The utility of non-human primate ES cells

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
Human ES cell lines are predicted to be valuable for the provision of therapeutic cells whose growth and differentiation can be controlled for the treatment of disease. However, for ES cell-based therapy to become a clinical reality, translational research involving non-human primates is essential. Several investigators have established ES cell lines from a variety of non-human primate species (Thomson et al. 1995, 1996, Suemori et al. 2001). These lines have been successfully maintained in an undifferentiated state with a normal karyotype for many months of culture. Pluripotent ES cell lines derived from non-human primates are a useful resource for preclinical human ES cell research, including allogenic transplantation studies for researching primate models of human disease.

A recent report by scientists in South Korea describes the isolation of an ES cell line derived from a cloned human embryo (Hwang et al. 2004). In doing so, these researchers have overcome some of the obstacles that to date have hampered primate cloning (Simerly et al. 2003) and accelerated research for potential ES cell-based therapies. While this work provides the first evidence for generating human ES cells from a somatic cell isolated from a living person, it is also likely to re-ignite the smoldering debate over how such research should be regulated.

	Conclusions

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
While ICSI has been an extremely important development for couples suffering from male infertility, many critical questions still need to be addressed. These include concerns about the physiological, behavioral and psychological integrity of the ICSI children, whether they will experience unexpected degenerative diseases in later life as well as the reproductive potential of the ICSI offspring, particularly sons. The use of immature testicular spermatogenic cells raises another set of problems, including the accurate definitions and criteria for cells selected and whether alteration of the normal pattern of genomic imprinting might result in an increasing incidence of diseases such as Angelman syndrome. Non-human primate models are valuable experimental systems for assessing novel ART techniques for human infertility, as well as assisting captive breeding programs to aid in the survival of endangered species. Although somatic cell nuclear transfer in rhesus macaques has yet to be reported, technological advances in cloning procedures are likely to accelerate this goal. Finally, primate ES cells are instrumental for understanding the regulative mechanisms of stem cell differentiation in vivo and in vitro, and hold tremendous potential for understanding the therapeutic value of differentiated human ES cell lines.

	Acknowledgements

Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 
I am grateful to the Pittsburgh Development Center faculty and staff whose research is described herein including: Drs Saverio Capuano, Kowityu Chong, Chris Navara, Gerald Ruppenthal, Paul Sammak, Gerald Schatten and Calvin Simerly. I am also grateful to our collaborators, Drs Justin St. John, João Ramalho-Santos and Yukihiro Terada. The sponsorship of the NIH in the support of the fundamental research cited in the article is gratefully acknowledged.

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Top Abstract Introduction Animal models for ART Cytoskeletal architecture during... Cytoskeletal architecture during... Nuclear transfer in non-human... The utility of non-human... Conclusions Acknowledgements References

 

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